by Grace Hayward
On February 22, 1946, George Kennan, an American diplomat and historian, sent an 8,000 word telegram to the Department of State articulating his perspective on U.S.-Soviet relations. Kennan’s “Long Telegram” outlined the U.S. strategy of containment, aimed at combating the Soviet threat. He described the Soviet Union as “a political force committed fanatically to the belief that with the U.S. there can be no permanent modus vivendi,” and thus, America’s only option was “long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies.” Following WWII, the United States and the Soviet Union entered a lengthy period of geopolitical tension lasting from 1945 to 1990 called the Cold War. This intense state of political and economic hostility fueled an extensive rivalry composed of bureaucratic threats, deceptive and formidable propaganda, and various stages of open warfare. The nearly five decades of antagonism between the two global superpowers significantly influenced society within the United States, which led to the outbreak of the “Second Red Scare;” an era of anti-communist suspicions, prominent civil unrest, passionate political strife, and increased prejudice and racism.
Widespread fear of communism suffocated American politics, culture, and society to an uncontrollable extent, leading to a national witch hunt for communist supporters known as “McCarthyism.” The movement was named after Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy who, in 1950, declared communists had permeated the U.S. State Department. McCarthy tactics included “the use of indiscriminate, often unfounded accusations, inquisitorial investigative methods, and sensationalism ostensibly in the suppression of communism.” Shortly after, in 1952, he was elected chair of the Senate subcommittee on investigations through which he scrutinized, questioned, and accused hundreds of innocent people. Later, Congress discredited and condemned him for this.
One of the groups most heavily impacted by the Red Scare and McCarthyism was the African American community. As anti-communist sentiments escalated under the leadership of President Harry S. Truman, the U.S. government compromised American ideals and contradicted U.S. policy. Previous political objectives such as promoting universal freedom and equality within the United States (regardless of race) were manipulated. Many anti-communists in America viewed the advocacy of racial equality, predominantly by black Americans, as a threat to the pre-existing capitalist society. Over time, race transformed into a bleak emblem of subversion. White supremacists and radical right-wing constituents, along with a large majority of the public, insisted that black Americans’ fight for social justice was an undercover communist plot. Furthermore, many black liberation groups came under fire for their promotion of values similar to those of “socialists.” These newfound fears led to heightened discrimination, disunity, and division politically, socially, and racially among Americans. “The Cold War had provided new ways of holding onto segregation, and retarding the black freedom movement for over a decade.”
To combat the spread of communism, Truman and his colleagues called for the creation of multiple government organizations, agencies, and programs which portrayed certain races as disloyal members of society. “In the supercharged atmosphere of the early Cold War, the anti-communist crusade spun out of control, creating the most widespread and longest lasting episode of political repression in American history.” The Red Scare prompted an era of utter chaos which made it easy for movements and governmental organizations to get out of hand. While the American people helplessly drowned in fear and confusion, the United States government assumed control, growing in power and influence. As Stuart J. Foster stated in his article examining the impact and power of the Red Scare in American postwar culture, “[The Red Scare] permeated every aspect of American culture… induced hyperbolic Cold War rhetoric and action, [and] intensified nationalistic sentiment.” The Red Scare cultivated a culture of fear and extreme anti-communism among Americans. Government organizations such as the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) led primarily by white supremacists and right wing affiliates used this fear as an outlet to attack the Civil Rights Movement and prohibit black Americans from advocating for basic human rights. These organizations and agencies unjustly targeted black Americans, using the Red Scare as justification to undermine the Civil Rights Movement. The HUAC
In the midst of the postwar atmosphere of distress and terror, a controversial yet highly supported group emerged. In 1938, Martin Dies; Texas politician and democratic member of the House of Representatives, along with fellow government agent, Samuel Dickstein created the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) under McCarthy’s leadership.
The HUAC, a subcommittee of the U.S. House of Representatives was responsible for investigating allegations of communist activities throughout the U.S. during the Cold War. However, the committee’s biased leadership and contentious strategies led to an increase in universal fear, distrust and repression that encompassed the anti-communist hysteria of the 1940s and 50s. Fears of being blacklisted and ostracized by the government rippled across the country, creating a “wedge between society and the United States Government.” The McCarthy era aroused a sense of uncertainty and untrustworthiness among U.S. citizens as the “lines of civil liberties and national security began to blur.” Yet, public opinion regarding the HUAC and executive power wavered; some Americans believed the government was infringing upon their personal freedoms, while others felt that the HUAC and McCarthyism were essential in maintaining a safe and secure nation. Nevertheless, in 1940, backed by the majority of Americans, the HUAC began their witch hunt by passing the Alien Registration Act. Chairman of the committee, Martin Dies, “claimed to have gathered knowledge that communists were in labor unions, government agencies, and African American groups.” To crack down on these groups and eliminate communist threats, Congress passed the Alien Registration Act, also known as the Smith Act. This act prohibited any individual from being “a member of any organization that supported a violent overthrow of the U.S. government, the Communist Party being its main target.” The HUAC Impact on Black Americans
As anti-communist sentiments intensified, the Communist Party USA became a principal target for governmental organizations such as the HUAC which challenged the vision and credibility of the party leading to detrimental effects on its black membership and their fight for social justice and equality. The Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA), founded in 1919, was one of the country’s most prominent left-wing political parties which supported egalitarian principles, individual freedoms, and the interests of the American working class. The CPUSA was a huge proponent of the Civil Rights Movement during the 1930s and 40s and attracted a large majority of the African American community across the country. The CPUSA campaigned on issues regarding racial segregation, evictions, unemployment benefits, and police brutality. Both during and after WWII, The Communist Party helped to build the industrial union movement, advanced the cause of African American civil rights, and laid the foundation for the postwar feminist movement. But the party was always prone to abrupt changes in line and vulnerable to attack as a sinister outside force because of its close adherence to Soviet policies and goals. As the Red Scare and McCarthyism escalated, the Communist Party was increasingly seen as a threat to society. The government used the Smith Act as a weapon against the CPUSA. As the party dwindled in size and influence, black Americans who relied on the party as a safe haven and support system suffered immensely. Union support for Black struggles withered in the right-wing atmosphere. The expelled CP-influenced unions, such as the United Electrical Workers, the Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers and the National Maritime Workers Union had outstanding records of organizing Black workers and support for civil rights issues. This point was not lost on racists, both in and out of the labor movement, who accused anyone opposed to Jim Crow segregation of being a ‘red.’ With the expulsion of CP unions, disunity among black workers arose and support for civil rights issues moved to the backburner. Furthermore, opposition to Jim Crow segregation was added to the list of communist actions. As a result, practically anyone fighting for the end of racial segregation was attacked and accused of being a communist. People saw black Americans’ “cry for freedom” and more rights as social upheaval and feared they were becoming communists just like the Soviets. This led to widespread fear, keeping many, even blacks and abolitionists, from advocating for civil rights issues.
In 1945, committee member and representative John E. Rankin of Mississippi succeeded in persuading the House to make the HUAC a permanent institution. “Rankin was both a fervent anti-communist and a white supremacist, and in his conspiracy-loving mind, those two causes apparently dovetailed.” In 1947, Rankin delivered a speech in which he explained his belief “that blacks who sought civil rights were in league with communists.” In that same speech, he relayed, “They sneer at me because of my advocacy of white supremacy — the only system under which we can hope to live and prosper and be peaceful in the southern states.” Not only did the HUAC target an American party with the largest black membership, but it did so under the reigns of white supremacists and Ku Klux Klan sympathizers, including John E. Rankin, John S. Wood and Ernest Adamson. Ranklin, along with Wood and Adamson defended the KKK, calling it simply “an old American institution.” The Red Scare was used by many governmental officials as a disguise for racist actions.
The corrupt leadership of the HUAC played a major role in the decline in civil rights activism during the 1940s and 50s, detrimentally impacting the lives of millions of black Americans. Members of the CPUSA were alienated and condemned. The parties catastrophic decline was made worse by attacks by employers and the government, criminal accusations and imprisonments, deportations, and blacklistings. As renowned American historian, Stanley Kutler suggests, McCarthyism “narrowed the political spectrum, marginalizing if not silencing all critics of the status quo.” The Red Scare transformed into more than just a fight against communism, but one of White against Black and Conservative against Liberal. Yet, the imbalance of power between the two sides was unparalleled. The FBI
Unfortunately for black Americans and members of the CPUSA, another institution arose in support of the HUAC. Linked quite closely to the HUAC and assisting in its mission and objectives was the FBI. While the FBI was “a crime fighting institution that fell under the jurisdiction of the Department of Justice rather than Congress,” they worked hand-in-hand with the HUAC throughout the years of the Red Menace.
Preceding the McCarthy Era, the FBI’s main goal was to protect the United States and act as the nation’s foremost law enforcement agency. However, by the dawn of the 1940s, preventing the communist threat from overtaking the U.S. became the top priority for all levels of the government. Thus, the responsibilities and jurisdiction of the FBI were expanded dramatically under President Truman’s authority. The FBI gained so much control that “any public or private agency or individual with information about subversive activities was urged to report it to the FBI.” The FBI quickly became the HUAC’s “right hand man” and most valuable resource.
The FBI’s access to personal information and records enabled the HUAC to more easily identify CP supporters and bring them to court. “The FBI, led by strident anti-communist J. Edgar Hoover… used wiretaps and spied on suspected communists giving the information to McCarthy and other anti-communist leaders.” Encouraged by the HUAC and President Truman, the FBI often reverted to illegal processes to collect and reveal information. “Not only did the federal government create and carry out some of the earliest anti-communist purges, but it also developed the ideological justification for them.” A substantial portion of the information that fueled the “loyalty-security investigations, criminal prosecutions, and congressional hearings that dominated the McCarthy era came from the FBI and reflected that organization's distorted view of the Red Menace.” With the alliance of the HUAC and FBI, the government had created an overbearing superpower that jeopardized the personal freedoms of all citizens; basic civic rights were no longer protected. The FBI’s Impact on Black Americans
Similar to the HUAC, the FBI targeted black Americans, committed racist actions, promoted white supremacy, and was determined to subdue the Civil Rights Movement. In fact, “the FBI devoted more resources to harming the Civil Rights Movement than any other task in its purview.” The Red Scare merely served as a cloak to hide the Bureau’s racist intent. With the FBI’s expansive knowledge and access to personal information, “it was not uncommon for someone seated before the HUAC to find the committee members armed with the defendant’s entire FBI file.” Those accused of subversive actions or communist connections barely ever escaped the courtroom without being deemed guilty. For black Americans, this meant the loss of countless fervent leaders and the destroyal of the backbone of the Civil Rights Movement. Historian and Associate Professor of History at the University of Chicago, Adam Greene, delved into the FBI’s impact on black lives in the 1950s during an oral interview with “Tracked in America.” He stated that,
All throughout the 1940s, and into the 1950s, there [was] selective but very relentless targeting of African-American leaders that [were] seen to be sympathetic with left ideologies, with Communist projects. Individuals found their passports taken away so that in essence they were in a kind of condition of house arrest, being kept within the United States because of the ways in which they were such effective critics of the conditions that African-Americans lived under about how the United States could advocate on behalf of democracy and against Communism and yet not practice democracy in its own home areas. The Red Scare provided new ways of scrutinizing black Americans and preventing them from carrying out everyday practices.
Truman’s Loyalty Program
In accordance with the HUAC and FBI’s mission, Truman’s Loyalty Program further marginalized black Americans, questioning their loyalty to the United States and putting the brakes on the Civil Rights Movement. Truman’s loyalty Program was quite literally a “test of loyalty” that targeted people “seeking to alter the form of government of the United States by unconstitutional means." As stated previously, the CPUSA was seen as a group seeking to change the configuration of the United States government and thus, black Americans in cahoots with the party were considered disloyal under Truman’s program. Truman’s Loyalty Program sent a signal to Americans that compliance with the government and the nation’s ideals was expected and of paramount importance. Soon, most of America had been swallowed by the enormous force of McCarthyism, and propaganda distributed under the Truman administration had brainwashed Americans. Rather than seeking an explanation for why they should fight communism, the majority of American citizens only cared about how they could combat the “monster” known as communism. As Robert J. Donovan outlined in his journal article titled, “Conflict and Crisis,” exploring the presidency of Harry S. Truman, “Although Truman had come to the presidency with no more than the ordinary degree of American suspicion and disapproval of the Soviet Union, a year of rising conflict had left him indignant, mistrustful, and contentious.” In a very short amount of time, Truman was able to transform the atmosphere within the United States to one of extreme fear and intimidation.
Under Truman’s presidency, multiple non-governmental groups also formed that served as enforcers of the loyalty program. One of those was the Women’s Association of American Women Against Communism. This association published and distributed various pamphlets throughout the McCarthy era urging citizens to take charge against communism and warning them about the hazards Soviets posed to American life. They labeled communism as a “disease” and emphasized the “risks” of a society under communist reigns. It was particularly difficult for black Americans to live harmoniously within society because of Truman and many other governmental official’s depiction of communism. Consequently, "when leaders like Truman described the Cold War in extremist terms as a life-and-death struggle against a monstrous enemy, legitimate criticism became suspect and dissenters were discredited.” As the Cold War continued, black Americans’ perceived association with communism worsened which led to an increase in discrimination. Truman’s Loyalty Program + the HUAC + the FBI = Powerhouse
Together, the HUAC and FBI used their increased power under the loyalty program to overpower black activists and further harm the Civil Rights Movement. “the Red Scare seriously wounded the civil rights battle, undermining its broad social vision and depriving the movement of some of its most committed activists.”
Paul Robeson, one of the Civil Rights Movement’s most influential political activists and an icon among the black community in the United States, was the first to be targeted by the HUAC. “[His] political philosophies and outspoken views about domestic and international Communist countries and movements were the subject of great concern to the western mass media and the United States Government.” During the McCarthy era, anything that contradicted the status quo was considered worthy of concern. As the Cold War progressed, black progressives continued to be repressed. “Aided by local and state police, a gang of whites disrupted a concert given by Paul Robeson in Peekskill, New York in 1948. HUAC witnesses declared that Robeson was ‘the black Stalin among Negroes.’” These accusations unjustly painted black Americans in a negative light and widened the gap between black Americans and the rest of society. Even worse, on July 18, 1949, the HUAC had Jackie Robinson, one of Robeson’s close friends and fellow civil rights activist, appear as a witness to testify against him. “The HUAC's aim was to have Robinson discredit… civil rights activist Paul Robeson.” The HUAC did not only increase the divide between Whites and Blacks - it pitted blacks against each other as well. The trials led to disunity among the black community and increased division among different social classes and races.
W.E.B. Du Bois, like Robeson, was also an American civil rights activist, known as the foremost black leader of the first half of the twentieth century. He strongly opposed racism and fought extensively for the civil rights of black Americans. He also helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 “and was the best known spokesperson for African-American rights.” Shortly after Robeson’s court trial, the HUAC accused Du Bois of subversive actions. “On 8 February 1951, Du Bois was indicted for allegedly serving as an ‘agent of a foreign principal’ in his anti-war work with the Peace Information Center in New York… [Du Bois] was handcuffed, fingerprinted, and portrayed in the national media as a common criminal.” As a member of the anti-war organization (The Peace Information Center), Du Bois advocated for peace initiatives in other countries and opposed nuclear weapons in the United States. The U.S. government accused Du Bois and others as agents working for the Soviet Union, imprisoning and publicly shaming them. This occurrence led to negative media coverage and worsened the reputation of black civil rights activists.
Unsurprisingly, yet another political activist and black nationalist was defamed by the United States government during the 1950s. Her name was Claudia Jones. Jones was imprisoned four separate times by the U.S. government and then deported in 1955. Jones’ story emphasizes how “the harassment of black leaders and movements, as well as the fear created throughout radical movements, forced the most effective radical organizing underground.” Her imprisonment and deportation exemplified the radicality of the government and the sheer power and force it had over the people. “Decision makers in the United States successfully cultivated a Cold War consensus that stifled debate and shaped the mindset of generations of Americans.” During the Cold War, people’s minds were controlled by the government; people believed what the government told them to believe and did not question it. NAACP
With the loss of important activists, a crippling reputation and racist attacks by government organizations, the NAACP struggled to maintain membership, ultimately silencing the Civil Rights Movement. Liberal Black leaders faced a tight predicament during the Cold War, “If they led a struggle for Black workers' rights, they would be attacked as “communists” and driven from the political mainstream.” This is because equal opportunity was seen as a communist principle. However, if they did nothing, “they risked losing the support of thousands of people who had joined groups like the NAACP in the 1940s.” Many supporters of the NAACP decided to withdraw their support out of fear of being caught by the government or ruining their reputation.
The southern Red Scare grew in tandem with massive resistance against the Civil Rights Movement immediately after the Brown v. Board decision (1954). White southerners not only held the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People [NAACP] responsible for the Supreme Court's decision but believed the organization was part of a Soviet-directed conspiracy. The Brown v. Board of Education Case was a monumental Supreme Court case in which the court identified separate schools for black and white students as unconstitutional. This was a turning point in American history, signifying the end of “legalized racial segregation in the schools of the United States.” This ruling was met with steadfast resistance and led to an increase in discontent among white Americans who saw equality as a threat and supported state-sanctioned segregation and “legal tradition.”Irritated and angered, white southerners blamed the NAACP and devalued the group’s purpose and vision. Conclusion
The Second Red Scare negatively impacted the Civil Rights Movement, destroying the largest black party in the United States, depriving the movement of its most valuable activists, portraying blacks as a threat to society, devaluing the NAACP, and prolonging segregation in the United States. A report conducted by the American Journal of Sociology in 1958 surveying the city of Boston supported the relation between McCarthyism and socioeconomic status, race, religion, and party preference. The Red Scare held varying influence on different groups of people, especially with regard to race. For black Americans, the Red Scare ushered in an era of increased mistreatment and suffering. Joseph R. McCarthy ruined countless people’s lives and careers through his fear mongering tactics and misinformed accusations. McCarthy left a lasting impact on America that forever changed society and is still being felt today. The Red Scare’s ability to successfully suppress the Civil Rights Movement for close to a decade illuminates the power of the government during the McCarthy era and the impact of anti-communism on individuals’ biases, opinions, and ultimately, actions. The government’s capacity to institute organizations and enact laws regarding the inspection of alleged links between subversive actions and social, political, and racial groups served as the first step towards increased governmental dominance. With an increase in executive power, the government began playing a much bigger role in the lives of all Americans, bordering the line of infringement on civil and human rights. With this established leverage, the government was able to brainwash and pressurize the majority of Americans into matching their personal beliefs with those of the government. Thus, whether consciously or not, people began to act in racist ways by discriminating against black Americans and fearing black political and social parties. In Walter Bernstein’s, Inside Out: A Memoir Of The Blacklist, who was himself blacklisted during the Second Red Scare writes, “communists were effectively demonized and liberals marginalized.” In this description of the events of the Red Scare, the words “communists” and “liberals” could quite easily be replaced with the term, “black Americans” and still be considered accurate.
Finally, with the end of McCarthyism came increased rights for black Americans. In 1964, after years of activism, demonstrations, and protests, the Civil Rights Act was passed; banning segregation in public accommodations. Soon after, the Voting Rights Act was passed removing the barriers to black voting. Yet, these strides were made only after the McCarthy era had come to a close. Had the Red Scare never occurred, it is highly probable that these successes in civil rights for black Americans would have been accomplished much earlier.